I’m going to start with an important and underappreciated point: the effects of torture are hard to research.
For a mixture of reasons, including shame and fear of reprisals, many people are uncomfortable admitting that they were tortured. Fewer still have the opportunity or are willing to participate in research. Sample sizes in studies are often ridiculously small, so small that it can be difficult to reach any conclusions.
On top of that, picking a control group can be difficult. If the majority of torture victims are depressed does comparing them to a health or depressed population make more sense? If the majority of torture victims suffered serious head injuries should they be compared to people with mild brain damage?
The research is hard. We’re only just beginning to get a clear picture of the short and long term effects of torture, on individuals and communities. Sometimes clear evidence just isn’t there.
Sometimes, for some techniques, it is. So long as you don’t call it ‘torture’. Information on sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, starvation, dehydration and extreme temperatures are all available.
What this means is that treatment is often a hit and miss affair. Studies trying to find better ways to treat torture victims often can’t find enough volunteers to get meaningful results.
All of that said, here is a non-exhaustive list of some of the things a character who has survived torture and physically healed might experience.
Much of the research on treating torture survivors focuses on PTSD which appears to be a more common response for torture than for other traumatising events.
It’s worth mentioning that although clear evidence on torturersis even more difficult to come by there’s a growing body of evidence suggesting that torturers are often traumatised by carrying out torture.
Anecdotal evidence suggests torturers develop many of the same psychological symptoms as their victims, including PTSD, depression, addiction, social isolation and long term personality changes.
[Sources, ‘Mental health interventions and priorities for research for adult survivors of torture and systematic violence: a review of the literature’ Torture Journal vol 26 iss 1 2016 W M Weiss et al
‘Why Torture Doesn’t Work: The Neuroscience of Interrogation’ Harvard University Press S O’Mara
‘Dysfunctional Pain Modulation in Torture Survivors: The Mediating Effect of PTSD’ The Journal of Pain vo 18 2017 R Defrin et al
‘Testimonial Therapy: Impact on social participation and emotional wellbeing among Indian survivors of torture and organized violence’ Torture Journal vol 25 iss 2 2015 M M Jorgensen et al]
‘National Style’ is a phrase Rejali coined to try and describe some of the patterns he saw in torture worldwide while he was researching his book.
It’s not so much a theory as an observation: particular countries and cultures seem to consistently favour particular torture techniques.
This doesn’t mean that torturers from these countries don’t use other techniques. It’s a general observation of the most common techniques and that which techniques are the most common varies between countries.
National Styles can change and unique tortures can still occur. What I’m hoping to do with this Masterpost is give an overview of the most common techniques in different countries.
This isn’t just for those of you setting your stories in a particular place. A lot of the sci-fi and fantasy asks I get are understandably vague about where exactly the story takes place. I’m hoping that a resource on National Styles will help you think about the cultures you’ve based your world on. Something set in the far future does not have to adhere to a particular National Style but it could serve as a useful starting point for thinking about the sorts of torture techniques that might exist in your world.
Just because I’ve excluded a country does not mean that the country is torture free. I don’t have adequate information on all countries to describe a National Style.
This is focused on the 1950s through to the present. I’m doing a separate post for World War 2 on the basis that when I tried to include it in the same post this was far too long. If I can find good sources in English for a variety of places in earlier time periods I’ll do some follow up posts on historical periods. Please keep in mind that there’s a trend towards non-scarring or ‘clean’ tortures currently, so most of these styles concentrate on techniques that rarely leave marks.
General Tortures that are common Worldwide
I’ve listed some of these in National Styles as well when I’ve felt it’s a particularly prominent feature of that country’s National Styles
-Beating
-Starvation
-Sleep deprivation
American Modern
American torture is incredibly similar to French. There isn’t any clear evidence about why exactly that is but one of the main theories is that Americans learnt at least some of these techniques during the Vietnam War. Previously, Vietnam was a French colony and there is considerable evidence that the French used these torture techniques there. Which doesn’t mean that is where the Americans got these techniques, just that it’s a possibility.
Electricity- Generally using Tasers or stun guns that are officially issued though in the past magnetos were also used. Police departments in particular experimented with many different uses of electricity in the early 1900s with many different accounts existing from that period.
Waterboarding- Waterboarding is a form of near-drowning torture that was first recorded as a torture used by the Dutch in the 1620s. It usually involves covering the mouth and nose with a cloth and restraining the victim so they are lying down with their feet above their head. Water is poured over the face and this stops the victim from breathing. Americans have been using this torture for decades.
Standing Stress Positions,with restraints- The favourite American stress position is ‘Standing cuffs’. A victim’s hands are cuffed and raised above their head until they’re standing on their toes. This also serves to deprive the victim of sleep. In some places victims were made to wear adult diapers as this was seen as especially humiliating.
Solitary Confinement- Rejali doesn’t include this as a feature of American torture and barely discusses solitary confinement at all. I’m including it on the basis that it is: so normalised in American prisons and military facilities, is used for punishment, causes intense pain, causes systematic mental and physical health problems and is allowed to continue for time periods that are frankly ludicrous.
French Modern
Electricity- French electrical torture strongly favoured use of magnetos for many years. With the technological shift away from magnetos it now seems to favour Tasers and stun guns like most modern countries.
Waterboarding- France’s history of waterboarding may be longer than America’s. There are records of waterboarding in French colonies and records of French Nazi sympathisers using waterboarding extensively during the Vichy government.
Crouching Stress Positions- Most of the stress positions I’m aware of that are particularly ‘French’ were strongly associated with the military and the French Foreign Legion. I am unsure whether they are still commonly in use today but they were 40 years ago and I’ve chosen to include them.
English Modern
The UK has very rarely used electrical torture and instead has relied on a variety of stress positions. This is unusual as most countries have regularly used electrical torture at some point even if it is no longer a feature of their National Style. It’s worth keeping in mind as a feature, should you ever have characters who experience or witness torture from different groups.
English torture has also been more varied in some respects. Torture in different colonies during the colonial period could vary dramatically, possibly a feature of the decentralisation of administration throughout the empire. Practices in Kenya were different to practices in Aden, Cyprus and Ireland. I’ve tried to focus on the overall similarities rather than list cases that only occurred in one particular place.
Positional torture without restraints- Accounts of English torture in Ireland usually contain a description of ‘Walling’. The victims were made to stand close to a wall, leaning forward. Their finger tips touched the wall but they were prevented from putting their weight against it. England has a long history of stress positions, especially in the military and a great many different positions have been used. English use of stress positions in the modern age seems to avoid restraints and instead rely on guards beating prisoners who don’t hold the stress position. Other standing stress positions apart from Walling have been used and the only common feature seems to be the lack of restraints.
Beating
Sleep deprivation- Methods of sleep deprivation were not consistent. Stress positions and sleep deprivation were often combined, but sleep deprivation was also inflicted by continually waking prisoners, use of noise and light or near-constant interrogation as in 'sweating’ or 'relay interrogation’ practices.
Exhaustion exercises- These are the practice of forcing someone to exercise until they collapse. Running, cleaning and aerobic exercises such as crouching then jumping repeatedly have all been used. Obstacle courses and forced crawling have also been used. While worthy of a place here I feel it should be noted that exhaustion exercises seem to be particularly associated with the English military and I’ve never seen an account involving the police. The exact form varies widely in English torture.
Temperature torture- This is usually done through exposure and seems to be slightly less common then the previous three methods but I felt it was worth including. Freezing showers and standing in extremely hot or cold rooms seem to be the 'usual’ methods.
English 'Five Techniques’
These were used in Ireland during the 'Troubles’ and I felt they were worth inclusion. They’re a seperate category because I haven’t found any evidence of them regularly being used in conjunction by the English or British elsewhere.
Standing stress positions
Hooding
Starvation and dehydration
Sleep deprivation
White Noise- This seems to have been uniquely used in Ireland. I’ve found no evidence of regular use elsewhere.
Russian Modern
I’m a little unsure of just how current my sources on Russia are. The following techniques were representative after the Cold War but may not all be currently in use.
Electricity- Russia like many countries that use electrical torture originally relied on magnetos but has since switched to more modern methods. I can’t find evidence for a preferred electrical source in Russia at the moment. The use of electricity is relatively recent, Soviet torture avoided electricity.
Dry choking- This was originally done using old fashioned gas masks. Manipulation of the air vent can be used to produce near-suffocation. Plastic bags are much more common now.
Beating
Suspension- Suspension by the wrists with the feet off the ground is a scarring torture that ruins hands and dislocates the shoulders. It causes permanent nerve damage on an average sized individual in around 15 minutes and acts more quickly when the victim is larger and heavier. Such practices are generally rare but this is still a common torture in Russian institutions. I am unclear on whether any sort of precautions are taken to avoid permanent damage to the victims or not.
Israeli Modern
Israel, like Britain, is notable for avoiding electrical torture. This is a relatively recent development with electrical torture and water based choking tortures being employed before the 1990s and not afterwards.
Positional torture using furniture- Use of child-sized furniture to deliberately cause discomfort in prisoners is, so far as I know, unique to Israel. An example would be making a victim sit in a child’s chair during a prolonged 'interrogation’. The size of the furniture makes it impossible for the victim to sit comfortably and has a similar effect to restraint torture, producing a prolonged discomfort but allowing enough movement to avoid the risk of kidney failure associated with stress positions. In some variants victims are shackled to child-sized chairs and this does seem to function as a stress position causing the tell-tale swelling in hands and feet.
Stress positions- Forced standing, including standing cuffs and forced squatting appear to be common.
Exhaustion exercises- I’ve seen reference to three specific forms of forced exercise which appear to have been in regular use since the 1980s. The first is making victims stand up and sit down repeatedly until they collapse from exhaustion. The second is the 'Bear Dance’, making victims run while holding a heavy object (sometimes a full bucket) in each hand. This exhaustion exercise is usually combined with a 'gauntlet’ of guards who hit or trip the victims as they run. The third was a sort of 'deep sit up’ performed on chairs while prisoners were handcuffed.
Hooding
Temperature torture- The Israeli style tends to use extremely hot or cold rooms rather than exposure to the elements.
Iran
Iran went through a period of using electrical torture but so far as I can tell after the 1990s it was no longer common. Electricity was used from at least the 1970s through to the 1990s.
I have not included punishments that are torture in the list but these include flogging, blinding and amputation.
Falaka- Beating the soles of the feet. This technique is common throughout the Middle East and North Africa. It has also been used historically in China. Different impliments cause different degrees of damage.
Beating
Stress Positions- My sources are unclear on what positions are favoured.
Turkish Modern
This basic combination of falaka and electricity is common throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa, though different countries add different techniques to this basic mixture. Israel and Iran stand out as distinct in the region.
Falaka
Stress positions- I don’t have any clear indication of which stress positions are common in Turkey currently
Electricity- As previously Turkey once used magnetos but has since switched to more modern implements such as Tasers and stun guns.
Indian and Pakistani Modern
I’ve chosen to put India and Pakistan in the same section due to the overwhelming similarities in their National Styles. This may be in part due to continued conflict between the two countries resulting in a constant exchange of torture techniques. As with the similarities between French and American Styles, there’s no proof this is the case, but it’s a possibility.
Stress positions, murgha- The victim is made to bend forward, putting their head between their knees. They are sometimes made to hold their ears. This is extremely painful and in some cases can cause bleeding from the mouth, nose and anus.
Pepper-In India and Pakistan this means insertion of irritants and spices into the nostrils, anus or vagina.
Electricity-The instruments used to generate electricity in Indian torture have varied widely since the 1950s. Magnetos, live wires, the mains and more conventional Tasers and stun guns have all been used in different regions. Pakistan has generally favoured electrical prods.
Ghotna-This is distinct to India and Pakistan. A large pestel, like a huge stone rolling pin used to grind spices, is rolled over the victim’s thighs. Sometimes police officers stand on the ghotna.
Falaka-Slightly more common in Pakistan but also used throughout India, falaka is the practice of beating the soles of the feet.
Choking-More common in India than Pakistan, dry choking is near strangulation or near suffocation.
Chinese Modern
I’ve had some difficulty with this one. What I’m reading suggests that Chinese torture is either not consistent across the country (which would be understandable in such a large and varied country) or that Chinese torture is changing.The result is that this is a bit vague, may be edited later and some of these practices may not be current or used everywhere in China.
Restraint tortures- I’ve seen several accounts of political prisoners being kept in retraints long term (ie for days, weeks or in some cases months). The favoured device is a combination hand and leg cuff, with a chain connecting the hands, another connecting the feet and a longer chain linking them together. This keeps the victim hunched over in an extremely uncomfortable position but allows enough movement that they do not die of kidney failure (a difference from stress positions which allows the torture to continue for much longer)
Positional torture using furniture- These include devices such as 'tiger chairs’ which are essentially restraint devices victims are strapped into and left in for prolonged periods (over 24 hours). I am unclear on whether these could have the same effect as a stress position and suspect it depends strongly on the piece of furniture and how the victim is restrained. Chairs which strap down the victim’s arms, legs and chest seem to be the most common but boards which restrain victims so they’re laying downhave also been used.
Sleep deprivation
Restriction of circulation- I’ve mentioned the old Chinese practice of 'finger-milking’ on the blog before. I’m unsure if the current practice is finger-milking but it shares similarities. Currently the victim’s hands or feet are restrained and the cuffs are deliberately made too tight, cutting off circulation and causing painful swelling in the hands or feet. In finger-milking this is accompanied with attacks to the swollen hands or feet. This is not always the case today.
Japanese Modern
Beating-One thing that I’ve seen particular reference to in Japanese cases that I haven’t seen elsewhere is hair pulling. There also appears to be higher use of furniture to beat suspects then in other countries.
Crushing hands with flat objects- Placing a stuff, hard, flat object like a rulerover the back of the hand and applying pressure. This produces intense pain but rarely leaves any lasting marks.
South Africa
This is predominantly focused on the post-Apartheid period. During Apartheid scarring torture was much more common and in addition to the techniques I’ve listed falaka, whipping, and pumping (forcing liquid into the stomach until it flows out of most orifices causing intense internal pain) were all used. Targeted sexual violence was and remains extremely common.
Electricity- Prods and stun guns seem to be the implements of choice.
Dry Choking- This was previously done using gas masks but now seems to be done with some sort of hooding. Plastic bags now seem to be the most common method.
Stress Positions- Predominantly forced standing.
Nigeria
Unusually for a modern state most torture in Nigeria is scarring. This may be because there is more or less complete impunity for torturers and torture is often justified by people in positions of power, citing the unrest in the north. Targeted sexual violence against women, queer people and people perceived as either is common.
Scarring beating- Using batons, gun butts, machetes, sticks, rods or cables.
Shooting extremities- Such as the leg, feet and hands.
Extraction of nails and teeth with pliers
Suspension by the feet- Another scarring torture.
Electricity-Amnesty describes this as using ‘battery powered objects’.
Near-strangulation- Using a rope around the neck.
Being forced to sit of lie on sharp objects- Broken glass appears to be a favourite.
Stress positions using implements- The ‘Parrot’s perch’ and a position called ‘Tabay’ are both used. The parrot’s perch has the victim’s hands tied together and their feet tied together. Their limbs are bent and a stick is inserted under the knees and over the elbows. They’re then lifted by the stick, exposing the buttocks and leaving them dangling upside down. In ‘Tabay’ the victim’s elbows are tied together and the arms are raised using a stick.
Sources:
Torture and Democracy by D Reajli, Princeton, 2009
There have been many famous, infamous, and secretive groups within fiction. If you’re trying to create clubs, factions, gangs, sects, guilds, brotherhoods, or any sort of organized group within your story but need a little boost getting the depth and nuances fleshed out, then I’m here to help.
Where did they begin?
Start with an idea. A person or a group of people came up with an idea, a philosophy, a passion. Who were they?
They began recruiting, rallying others (a few other people, or large groups) around their idea. How difficult was this? How receptive were those who heard? How open about their new idea were they?
They formed an official organization. What mission statement did they write? How was a leader or group of leaders selected? How much disagreement was there in the earlier states? How did they find and/or claim a headquarters? What rules did they start out with, if any?
How did they adapt to growth over time? Was the growth fast or slow, if it happened at all? How did rules or structure need to be adjusted as the numbers grew?
If the primary goal or mission was met, how did they adjust and redefine their purpose?
How do they function, once established?
How has their origin shaped who they are as an organization today?
How do they interact with the world at large?
Are they a secret society?
Are they at odds with the law?
Do they run their town/village/country, whether directly or indirectly?
Who can join? What does joining require? Is there a “probationary” period? How are new recruits treated?
Is there any training or education that proceeds (or precedes) initiation?
How are they funded?
Through illegal means
Through the government
Through private donations
Through the church
Through the (legal) work of their members
Do they have an official or unofficial religious affiliation?
Do they have an emblem or a sigil, some symbol of their loyalty. How is that mark treated? How commonly recognized is that symbol?
How free to live one’s own life is a member once they’ve joined? How much of a day-to-day impact does the membership have?
Can they still work their old job?
Have their old friends?
Stay with their families? Or perhaps the families join as a unit?
Keep their home? Perhaps they still live in it, but it becomes property of the guild?
How ubiquitous is the mission statement? Is it quoted frequently?
What is the consequence for leaving the group? Or for disloyalty?
wondrousworldbuilding: Developing believable groups within a society There have been many famous, infamous, and secretive groups within fiction. If you’re trying to create clubs, factions, gangs, sects, guilds, brotherhoods, or any sort of organized group within your story but need a little boost getting the depth and nuances fleshed out, then I’m here to help. Where did they begin? Start with an idea. A person or a group of people came up with an idea, a philosophy, a passion. Who were they? They began recruiting, rallying others (a few other people, or large groups) around their idea. How difficult was this? How receptive were those who heard? How open about their new idea were they? They formed an official organization. What mission statement did they write? How was a leader or group of leaders selected? How much disagreement was there in the earlier states? How did they find and/or claim a headquarters? What rules did they start out with, if any? How did they adapt to growth over time? Was the growth fast or slow, if it happened at all? How did rules or structure need to be adjusted as the numbers grew? If the primary goal or mission was met, how did they adjust and redefine their purpose? How do they function, once established? How has their origin shaped who they are as an organization today? How do they interact with the world at large? Are they a secret society? Are they at odds with the law? Do they run their town/village/country, whether directly or indirectly? Who can join? What does joining require? Is there a “probationary” period? How are new recruits treated? Is there any training or education that proceeds (or precedes) initiation? How are they funded? Through illegal means Through the government Through private donations Through the church Through the (legal) work of their members Do they have an official or unofficial religious affiliation? Do they have an emblem or a sigil, some symbol of their loyalty. How is that mark treated? How commonly recognized is that symbol? How free to live one’s own life is a member once they’ve joined? How much of a day-to-day impact does the membership have? Can they still work their old job? Have their old friends? Stay with their families? Or perhaps the families join as a unit? Keep their home? Perhaps they still live in it, but it becomes property of the guild? How ubiquitous is the mission statement? Is it quoted frequently? What is the consequence for leaving the group? Or for disloyalty? Happy writing, kiddos! Check out the rest of the Brainstorming Series! Magic Systems, Part One Magic Systems, Part Two New Species New Worlds New Cultures New Civilizations Politics and Government Map Making Belief Systems & Religion War & Conflict Science & Technology History & Lore
Oh my gosh. I just found this website that walks you though creating a believable society. It breaks each facet down into individual questions and makes it so simple! It seems really helpful for worldbuilding!
Heads up that this is a very extensive questionnaire and might be daunting to a lot of writers (myself included). That being said, it is also an amazing questionnaire and I will definitely be using it (or at the very least, some of it).
This is exactly the kind of thing I need because I’m not so much interested in worldbuilding, I just need a cool place for my characters to grow and interact in. Gonna try it another night when it’s not almost my bed time.
donjon has tons of generators. for calendars. for demographics of a country and city. for names (both fantastical and historical) of people, nations, magics, etc.
this site lets you generate/design a city, allowing you to choose size, if you want a river or coast, walls around it, a temple, a main keep, etc.
this twitter, uncharted atlas, tweets generated maps of fantasy regions every hour.
andvulgar allows you to create a language, based on linguistic and grammatical structures!!! go international phonetic alphabet!!!
