Difficulty in registering and responding to the facial expressions of other people is a hallmark of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Relatedly, functional imaging studies have shown that individuals with ASD display altered brain activations when processing facial images.
The hormone oxytocin plays a vital role in the social interactions of both animals and humans. In fact, multiple studies conducted with healthy volunteers have provided evidence for beneficial effects of oxytocin in terms of increased trust, improved emotion recognition, and preference for social stimuli.
This combination of scientific work led German researchers to hypothesize about the influence of oxytocin in ASD. Dr. Gregor Domes, from the University of Freiburg and first author of the new study, explained: “In the present study, we were interested in the question of whether a single dose of oxytocin would change brain responses to social compared to non-social stimuli in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.”
They found that oxytocin did show an effect on social processing in the individuals with ASD, “suggesting that oxytocin may help to treat a basic brain function that goes awry in autism spectrum disorders,” commented Dr. John Krystal, Editor of Biological Psychiatry.
To conduct this study, they recruited fourteen individuals with ASD and fourteen control volunteers, all of whom completed a face- and house-matching task while undergoing imaging scans. Each participant completed this task and scanning procedure twice, once after receiving a nasal spray containing oxytocin and once after receiving a nasal spray containing placebo. The order of the sprays was randomized, and the tests were administered one week apart.
Using two sets of stimuli in the matching task, one of faces and one of houses, allowed the researchers to not only compare the effects of the oxytocin and placebo administrations, but also allowed them to discriminate findings between specific effects to only social stimuli and non-specific effects to more general brain processing.
What they found was intriguing. The data indicate that oxytocin specifically increases responses of the amygdala to social stimuli in individuals with ASD. The amygdala, the authors explain, “has been associated with processing of emotional stimuli, threat-related stimuli, face processing, and vigilance for salient stimuli”.
This finding suggests oxytocin might promote the salience of social stimuli in ASD. Increased salience of social stimuli might support behavioral training of social skills in ASD.
These data support the idea that oxytocin may be a promising approach in the treatment of ASD and could stimulate further research, even clinical trials, on the exploration of oxytocin as an add-on treatment for individuals with autism spectrum disorder.
My cat, MaoMao is an older rescue cat who started out life as a very young, feral Mum to two kittens. When she was taken in she was deemed too feral to be homed with humans and so was placed into a barn, with an outdoor run to enjoy her days with other rounded up feral cats.
As many as five or six years later it was noticed that she couldn’t walk without severe pain and was diagnosed with advance stage pillow paw. She had surgery to fix her paws and during her isolation her handler realised two things: Her life in the feral-barn was not a good life for her (she didn’t get on with other cats and was extremely timid and undernourished). The second thing was that she actually did seem to like her human handler’s company (and belly rubs!), even if she was very afraid, flighty and slow to trust.
The next stage of her rehab she was homed with my friends who foster cats that may need some time getting used to humans or being taught how to love. { mandytsung&choplogik }. They looked after her for many months, and taught her what a loving home could be. She slowly progressed from hiding behind furniture and art canvases to learning to play and be petted and being social. All along she was the sweetest cat you could imagine. Still, she clearly had some issues, most of which seemed to revolve around her fear of humans.
Her paws healed, but pillow paw is a chronic auto-immune condition. Due to her health and the fact that she was so timid and afraid of new people, it didn’t look too likely that she would find a permanent home.
I met her while house sitting a couple of times and feeding her while my friends took trips for work. We clicked almost instantly, and we fast became tentative pals.
Cleverly, one time, my friends had me look after her for a week in my own home, while they went away. It was just one day into this week that it was clear she had Arrived to her forever home and she was never going to leave.
Now don’t get me wrong, that photo up there is not representative of the entire year we’ve lived together. It took a lot of hard work from us both to learn to trust and love each other.
We’ve come so far, and it has been the most rewarding and beautiful friendship I’ve had with an animal. She’s learned everything from hand gestures, to words and signs of affection. Each one I had to teach her with repetition, patience and respect for her wild tendencies.
She now talks and communicates with me in every way imaginable. She {mostly} listens to me and she definitely understands me. We have the utmost respect for each other. As a result, we are now so close that we can rub our heads into each other, we can spoon and we can sleep next to each other all night long. She comes when I call her and she’s learned to tell me in tender ways when something crosses a line. Earning the love, respect and trust of an animal that many would have passed over is truly something.
She is the smartest, sweetest cat I have ever known and I am so happy to love her and spoil her and provide her with her dream home.
She’s probably about 9 years old now. I hope we get to be pals for a long time.
Virtual reality (VR) pornography is a small but growing market in the adult industry. As the cost of this technology comes down in price and becomes more accessible to a wider consumer base, its growth is only likely to accelerate. However, as VR porn becomes more widespread, we’re also likely to hear more and more questions raised about how it impacts people, and whether its impact is similar to or different from two-dimensional (2D) porn.
Currently, only a small handful of studies have explored the impact of VR porn, so there’s a lot we don’t yet know. However, a recent study published in the Journal of Sex Research suggests that the psychological impact of VR porn is quite distinct from 2D porn.
For this study, researchers recruited a group of 50 heterosexual men aged 18-60. All participants watched two videos, each on a separate day. One was a VR video, while the other was in 2D. Both videos were the same length and depicted the same sex act: a threesome involving one man and two women from the male first-person perspective.
Participants completed a survey during and after the film about their feelings of sexual arousal and desire. Saliva samples were also collected before and after the films to test for levels of oxytocin, a hormone that plays a role in feelings of bondedness to others.
It turned out that the VR porn was perceived very differently from the 2D porn. Specifically:
Levels of sexual and bodily arousal were higher when watching VR porn.
Feelings of sexual desire for the actresses were higher in the VR condition.
Participants felt more connected to the performers and had more desire to interact with them in the VR condition. They also felt more desired, flirted with, and that the performers were looking them in the eye when watching VR porn.
VR porn was seen as less boring and participants felt more like they were the male actor.
Both types of porn were linked to greater oxytocin release, but levels did not significantly differ based on type of video. The researchers had expected to find that VR porn would be linked to more oxytocin release, but that wasn’t the case. This was particularly interesting to me because I’ve long wondered about oxytocin release during porn viewing—and whether it might play a role in why some people feel very bonded to specific performers. Do people who develop attachments to specific porn performers tend to release more oxytocin? This would be an interesting question to explore in future research.
Lastly, greater oxytocin levels at baseline (prior to watching porn) were linked to perceiving more intensity of eye contact in the VR condition, which suggests that there is some role of oxytocin in how people perceive and experience VR porn.
This study offers a preliminary look at the psychological impact of VR porn and has several limitations, including the fact that only heterosexual men were studied and participants did not get to select their own porn (and therefore could not customize it for their tastes). Further research is needed to better understand how different groups of people experience this kind of porn.
That said, these results suggest that VR porn is indeed perceived quite differently from 2D porn in terms of creating a greater illusion of intimacy. Whether that is considered positive or negative will be hotly debated.
Some will argue that feeling intimacy from porn is yet another way that technology will ultimately push us apart. Likewise, some may see porn that produces more feelings of intimacy as a bigger relationship threat, meaning they might be more likely to categorize it as cheating/infidelity. However, others will point to beneficial or potentially therapeutic applications—for example, could this type of porn help people learn to deal with sexual performance anxiety by creating intimacy without fear of rejection?
What do you think? Weigh in with your comments below!
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To learn more about this research, see: Dekker, A., Wenzlaff, F., Biedermann, S. V., Briken, P., & Fuss, J. (2020). VR Porn as “Empathy Machine”? Perception of Self and Others in Virtual Reality Pornography. The Journal of Sex Research.
Third stage of labour is simply the time from the birth of the baby to the separation and expulsion of the placenta and membranes. Sounds easy right?
During the third stage, the placenta detaches itself from the uterine wall and the muscles of the uterus contract tightly around the tiny blood vessels that have supplied the placenta throughout your pregnancy to prevent excessive blood loss. These complex hormonal and physical changes are all happening while you are meeting your new baby for the first time.
So What is all the Fuss About?
In developed countries, including Australia, Post Partum Haemorrhage is one of the leading causes of maternal death and morbidity (World Health Organisation). The most risky time for a woman during childbirth is during or immediately following third stage. In fact, you can loose a considerable amount of blood within the first 24 hours (primary haemorrhage) or even 24 hours to 6 weeks post partum (secondary haemorrhage).
Anything that may prevent the uterus from being able to contract down tightly around the many tiny blood vessels that were attached to the placenta, such as small pieces of placenta or membranes left behind that may have come away, a full bladder, a tired uterus or a uterus that has given birth multiple times previously and has lost its elasticity, will allow the blood vessels to remain open, exposed and continue to bleed. A similar concept to putting pressure on a cut or wound to stop the bleeding.
There will always be blood loss during the third stage and every women will be effected differently depending on her general state of health, level of haemoglobin at birth and function of the coagulation system. One woman may loose 1000ml of blood and not be compromised in any way and another woman may loose 500ml and become very unwell.
Separation of the placenta begins with the contraction that births the baby. The surface area of the placental site is rapidly reduced by the sudden emptying of the uterus to an area approx 10cm in diameter. This reduction results in compression and shearing of the placenta from the uterine wall. The contraction pattern is interupted as the placenta transfers its blood volume to the baby and hands over the job of oxygenation to the baby’s lungs. The placenta becomes less bulky and mother-baby interactions such as smell, touch (skin to skin), taste and sound stimulate further Oxytocin release and the uterus to contract. This is one of the reasons why skin to skin contact is so important following the birth.
As the placenta continues to be compressed by the contracting uterus, the blood in the spaces between your blood system and your baby’s blood system (placenta) is forced back into the spongy layer of the uterine lining (decidua). Retraction of the uterine muscle fibres constrict the blood vessels supplying the placenta, preventing blood from draining back through your blood vessels (maternal vascular tree). This causes congestion resulting in the veins rupturing and villi of the placenta shearing off the uterine wall. A clot then forms (retroplacental clot) behind the placenta and the placenta peels away.
Once separation is complete, the uterus contracts strongly and the placenta and membranes fall into the lower segment of your uterus and then into your vagina. You may get the sensation to “push” again but this time there is no bones!
So Where Does all the Blood Come From?
There is between 450ml - 700ml per minute of blood flowing to your uterus. This flow must be stopped in seconds to prevent serious haemorrhage. There are three factors involved in this process:
Living Ligatures: The tortuous uterine blood vessels are surrounded by the oblique muscle fibres, which retract and act as ‘living ligatures’ and constrict all of the blood vessels.
Pressure: Once the placenta has left the upper segment of your uterus, a vigorous contraction brings the wall of the uterus in opposition, applying pressure to the placental site.
Blood Clotting: There is an increase in the activity of your coagulation system during and immediately after placental separation so that clot formation in the torn blood vessels is maximised.
You can now see that anything that interferes or delays with the above processes, such as those discussed earlier, will increase the risk of more blood loss.
So How Long Does Third Stage Take?
When nature is left alone (physiological), third stage is usually completed within the hour but can take a lot longer. If you are giving birth in a hospital, there will be policies and guidelines that put a time limit on the process, for e.g. if you are choosing a physiological third stage and there is no sign of a placenta after 30 mins, the Dr will be notified and the Midwife will probably start preparing you for the administration of a prophylactic oxytocic drug (Syntocinon) to accelerate the process. If your blood loss is not substantial then you may be able to negotiate more time. Remember your consent has to be given to administer any drug and it’s all about being informed and educated. You will most likely be asked to sign a consent form at one of your antenatal visits for the administration of Syntocinon. If you choose a Managed third stage (see below for more information) your placenta is often birthed within 5 minutes.
What is the Difference Between Physiological and a Managed (Active) Third Stage?
A physiological third stage is where you allow nature to birth your placenta with no intervention. Once your baby is born the cord will be left to stop pulsating on its own and the placenta will be left untouched to fall into the vagina and birth spontaneously. The cord will then be clamped and cut. The cord may also be clamped and cut before the placenta births. This is something you can discuss with your Midwife.
A managed or active third stage is where as the baby’s shoulders are being born, or soon after, you will be given an injection of Syntocinon into your leg which causes the uterus to contract down hard and accelerate the processes discussed above. This lessens the amount of blood loss and is often the preferred choice by hospitals. The cord is clamped and cut and your Midwife will watch for signs of separation (cord lengthening, small gush of blood) and will apply pressure to your lower abdomen and gently “pull” on the cord (controlled cord traction) and lift your placenta out of your vagina.
How Do I Decide? Physiological or Active?
The physiological vs Active Management debate has been ongoing for years and I will explore this another time. There is alot of research out there now that discuss the benefits of physiological third stage for the baby.
As a new midwife still developing my knowledge, exploring the research and gaining experience, I feel its my role to provide the information individual to the woman and then support her choice.
If you have any risk factors that may increase the likelihood of increased blood loss such as a history of previous PPH (postpartum haemorrhage), a long or obstructed labour (tired uterus that may not contract around the blood vessels as well) or grandmultip (5+ births) then an active management maybe the better and safer option for you. If your labour and birth has had any type of intervention such as induction of labour, then the physiological processes have already been interfered with and it may also be a safer option to have an active third stage. During an induction the drug Syntocinon is used to bring on contractions. Syntocinon is a synthetic version of the hormone Oxytocin that your body produces to naturally bring on contractions, initiate milk production and as we have been discussing causes the uterus to contract down hard during third stage. Once Syntocinon has been introduced into your system it over rides your natural Oxytocin production and therefore if we were to remove it after the birth, the uterus would not respond as well.
If you experience a spontaneous labour with nil interventions then there is no reason why a physiological third stage can not be achieved. The idea is to promote effective endogenous oxytocin released by allowing undesturbed skin to skin, low lighting and quiet environment, no fiddling or touching of the fundus or cord and no stress or fear among anyone in the room.
Educate and inform yourself and talk about your individual experience with the Midwife or Doctor at your next antenatal appointment to make a decision that is right and safest for you and your baby.
Further Reading
Active vs Expectant Management for Women in Third Stage of Labor (A Review). (2011). Begley CM, Gyte GML, Devane D, McGuire W, Weeks A
