Hauser, Chomsky and Fitch (HCF) wrote a paper in 2002 entitled The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? It explicitly introduced an important distinction between the Faculty of Language in the Broad Sense (FLB) and the Faculty of Language in the Narrow Sense (FLN).

FLB is made up of all the components used in language, e.g. ability for vocal learning, ability to conceptualise, a sensori-motor system, a computational system (syntax) capable of recursion etc. FLN is a subset of FLB, i.e. everything in FLN is also in FLB but not vice versa. More specifically, FLN contains only those components of FLB which are uniquely human. HCF hypothesise that FLN only contains recursion and that all other aspects of language (i.e. what constitutes the rest of FLB) can be found in non-human species.

You might not agree with HCF in terms of what to assign to FLN, but the general distinction is both useful and perhaps necessary for tackling the issue of language evolution. The first question of HCF’s title (what is it?) involves filling in the FLB category – and obviously we need to know what it is we are trying to explain the evolution of! The second question (who has it?) involves deciding whether something belongs to FLN as well. If we put something in the FLN box, we are saying it is uniquely human. This can be tested (in principle – how easy it is to test is another matter!) and this is one place where interdisciplinary research between biology and linguistics can be very fruitful and informative. Basically, from an evolution of language perspective, we want to know what exactly (if anything) makes human language special. This then leads to the third question – we can ask how the uniquely human part of language evolved, i.e. we can ask how did FLN evolve rather than the much larger question of how did FLB evolve.

Of course, having done all that, FLN might turn out to be empty! Perhaps human language is not qualitatively different, only quantitatively different. But let’s wait to see what we find!

Grimm’s Law (also called the First Germanic Sound Shift) refers to changes which affected the stop consonants in what became the Germanic subgroup of the Indo-European language family (Proto-Germanic being the ancestor of all Germanic languages, i.e. Gothic, German, Yiddish, Swedish, Icelandic, Dutch, Afrikaans, Old English, English etc.). There are in fact three series of changes which changed some aspect of the articulation of the IE stop consonants whilst retaining the same number of distinctions (number of phonemes).

Law A:             IE /p t k/          >          Gmc /f θ x/

Law B:             IE /b d g/         >          Gmc /p t k/

Law C:             IE /bh dh gh/   >          Gmc /β ð γ/ (which later became /b d g/)

Exactly when this happened is not known but we can at least work when the Laws may have taken effect relative to each other, e.g. Law A cannot have happened after Law B because otherwise we would expect IE /b d g/ to show up as /f θ x/ in Germanic.

For example:

Latinpater > Englishfather, German Vater(German orthographic <v> is pronounced /f/)

Greektri > English three

Latincord- > English heart (English /h/ descends from earlier /x/)

Sanskritbhratar > English brother, German Bruder

These are standard but selective examples. Standard in the sense that you’ll find them in text books; selective in that we cannot simply look at one language and expect it to faithfully represent changes which happened hundreds of years ago. Latin, Greek and Sanskrit have undergone changes since Proto-Indo-European and English and German have undergone changes since Proto-Germanic. Modern German shows evidence of a Second Germanic Sound Shift which changed the Germanic stop consonants again! English did not undergo this change as it had already separated from the language that was to become German (compare threeanddrei,daughterandTochteretc.).

In the most recent versions of Chomskyan theory, Merge plays a central (if not the central) role. It is the only structure building operation available in the language faculty. This differs from earlier versions where Move was considered to be a separate structure building operation but Move has since been reconceived as a different type of Merge.

The Minimalist Program has reduced the architecture of the language faculty to the bare essentials (referred to as the ‘(virtually) conceptually necessary’ components). This means that there is a lexicon, a structure building computational system and (at least) two ‘interfaces’ with other cognitive systems (one semantic, the other phonological, broadly speaking). Items are selected from the lexicon and copied into the Numeration if they are to be used to construct a sentence. The Numeration is like a holding bay.

Merge, the structure building operation, takes two items and forms a set, i.e. X and Y merge to form {X,Y} (the theory also involves labelling the set but I’ll ignore that bit). Now, when I said above ‘a different type of Merge’ I did not mean that the operation itself varies, rather the difference between the types of Merge lies in where X and Y come from. There are three possibilities.

1)     X and Y both come directly from the Numeration.

2)     Either X or Y but not both comes directly from the Numeration.

3)     Neither X nor Y come directly from the Numeration.

Option (1) is the type of Merge that gets structure building started. Without (1) there would be no structure.

Option (2) is the type of Merge called External Merge (EM) because one of the merging items is from the Numeration, i.e. comes from somewhere external to the structure that has already been built. Option (2) allows the structure built by option (1) to be extended by merging further items to already existing structure.

Option (3) is the type of Merge called Internal Merge (IM) and this is the current conception of movement. When an item moves, it is going from one place in the structure to another so the items that are merging both come from somewhere internal to the structure that has already been built.

Note that this assumes there is only one monolithic Numeration. If we wanted to merge two existing structures, we would have to add to the options above or modify our assumptions about the nature of the Numeration.

*All verbs below are in original form(dictionary form).

존재하다 : to exist

선언하다 : to declare, proclaim

목격하다 : to witness

제안하다 : to suggest

조언하다 : to advise

개입하다 : to intervene

헌신하다 : to devote

축하하다 : to congratulate

환영하다 : to welcome

접근하다 : to approach

투자하다 : to invest

개선하다 : to improve

응원하다 : to cheer, support

설명하다 : to explain

오해하다 : to misunderstand, misconceive

해결하다 : to resolve

조절하다 : to adjust

계획하다 : to plan

보호하다 : to protect

조사하다 : to investigate

확인하다 : to check, verify, confirm

출발하다 : to depart, set off, start

도착하다 : to arrive, reach

설득하다 : to persuade

양보하다 : to yield, give way

희생하다 : to sacrifice

쟁취하다 : to achieve, win

야기하다 : to cause, bring about

실수하다 : to make a mistake

긍정하다 : to affirm

부정하다 : to deny

생산하다 : to produce

소비하다 : to consume, spend

인정하다 : to admit

소유하다 : to own, possess

봉사하다 : to serve, do volunteer work

유지하다 : to maintain

보조하다 : to assist

인용하다 : to quote, cite

대표하다 : to represent

선택하다 : to choose, select

거절하다 : to reject, refuse

촉진하다 : to promote, accelerate, boost

요구하다 : to demand, ask

사과하다 : to apologize

추측하다 : to guess, suppose

간섭하다 : to interfere

낭독하다 : to read aloud

관찰하다 : to observe

추구하다 : to pursue, seek

Written and edited by Admin Yu

눈 : snow

첫눈 : first snow of the winter

눈송이 / 눈꽃 : snowflake

결정 : crystal

서리 : frost

함박눈 : big snowflakes

진눈깨비 : sleet

눈보라 : blizzard

우박 : hail

폭설 : heavy snow

만년설 : perpetual snow

설경 : snow scenery

눈사람 : snowman

눈덩이 : snowball

눈싸움 : snowball fight

눈이 내리다 : to snow

얼다 : to freeze

녹다 : to melt, to thaw

하얗다 : white

새하얗다 : pure white

희다 : white

차갑다 : cold

춥다 : cold (weather)

(손이/귀가/코가) 시리다 : (hand/ear/nose is) cold

펑펑 : (adverb) shape of snow falling heavily (ex. 함박눈이 펑펑 내린다)

펄펄 : (adverb) shape of snow or powder blowing in the wind (ex. 흰 눈이 펄펄 내린다)

소복소복 : (adverb) shape of things piled up (ex. 길에 눈이 소복소복 쌓여 있다)

뽀드득 : (adverb) sound of stepping on a pile of snow

It’s snowing heavily in Korea!

-Written and edited by Admin Yu

Hello, this is Admin Hee. Today’s grammar will be regular conjugation.

Regular conjugation

The regular change of form of predicate in Korean grammar such as verbs and adjectives. At this point the predicate of a clause is the part of it that is not the subject and it consists of a stem and ending.

-Stem : unchanging part of the predicate

보- is the stem of the forms ‘보다’, ‘보니’, ‘보고’

-Ending : changing part

-다. -니, -고 is the ending of the forms ‘보다’, ‘보니’, ‘보고’

1. ‘ㅡ’ Elision  (’ㅡ’ 탈락)

‘ㅡ’ is elided in front of the stem ‘-아/어’, ‘-았/었-’

• 담그- + -아 = 담가
• 슬프- + -어 = 슬퍼
• 아프다 + 아서/어서 = 아파서

Such verbs or adjectives like 끄다, 크다, 바쁘다, 따르다 are examples.

2. ‘ㄹ‘ Elision (’ㄹ’ 탈락)

When the last sound of the stem ‘ㄹ’ meets ‘ㄴ,ㅂ,ㅅ,오’ , it gets elided too.

• 살- + -는 = 사는
• 살- + -ㅂ니다 = 삽니다
• 살- + -오 = 사오

살다, 놀다, 울다, 불다, 얼다, 멀다 and so on are the examples.

Additionally, nouns that ends up with consonant ‘ㄹ’, gets elided when it is combined with ‘ㄴ,ㅅ’ which is the first sound of the next word. This is not about the conjugation of verbs and adjectives but are also called ‘ㄹ’ 탈락.

• 버들+나무 = 버드나무
• 솔+나무 = 소나무
• 딸+님 = 따님

Written by Admin Hee

Edited by Admin Yu

직업 Job

의사 Doctor

간호사 Nurse

변호사 Lawyer

검사 Prosecutor

판사 Judge

기자 Reporter

아나운서 Announcer

선생님 Teacher

소방관 Firefighter

기술자 Engineer

미용사 Hairdresser

기업인 Business person

조종사 Pilot

기사 Driver

경찰관 Police

인명구조원 Life guard

우주비행사 Astronaut

배우 Actor

작가 Writer

요리사 Chef

Written by Admin Na

Edited by Admin Yu

Hi! This is Admin Hyun.

Today’s grammar I want to introduce is ‘same vowel elision’(동음 탈락). Same vowel elision is not an irregular conjugation. Under the conditions, it always happens.

A phenomenon where an ending(어미) that starts with ‘-아’ or ‘어’ follows after verb’s or adjective’s(용언) stem(어간) that end with ‘-아’ or ‘어’, and as a result, the same vowel ‘아’ or ‘어’ is repeated(comes consecutively), one of the same vowels is omitted(elision)

ㅏelision (ㅏ 탈락)

• 가+아서 가서(go and-)
• 가+아  가(go)
• 가+았 + 다  갔다(went)
• 차+아서 차서(kick and-)
• 차+아  차(kick)
• 차+았 + 다  찼다(kicked)

ㅓ elision (ㅓ 탈락)

• 건너+어서 건너서(cross the street and-)
• 건너+어  건너(cross the street)
• 건너+었 + 다   건넜다(crossed the street)
• 나서+어서  나서서(take the lead and-)
• 나서+어 나서(take the lead, step ahead)
• 나서+었 + 다  나섰다(took the lead)

Keep in mind that if the stem ends with a consonant, same vowel elision doesn’t take place. For example,

• 먹 + 어  먹어(eat)
• 먹 + 었 + 다  먹었다(ate)
• 잡 + 아  잡아(catch)
• 잡 + 았 + 다  잡았다(caught)

Elision of vowels is a kind of ‘elision of phoneme(음운)’. Not only vowels but also consonants are subject to elision. For example, if in 딸(daughter)+님(honorific ending), ‘ㄹ’ is omitted when it is followed by ㄴ and becomes 따님(honorific form of daughter). Elision of phoneme is one of many ‘changes in phoneme’ which include alteration, elision, addition and contraction.

Written by Admin Hyun

Edited by Admin Yu

部 - 부 - 떼 부

Division / Part

Example in main pic:

大部分 - 대부분 - Most

分 - 분 - 나눌 분

Division / Part / Minute

Example in main pic:

分-분 - Minute

多 - 다 - 많을 다

Many / Most / All

Example in main pic:

多樣 - 다양 - Variety / Diversity

數 - 수 - 셀 수

Number

Example in main pic:

多數 - 다수 - Majority

全 - 전 - 온전할 전

Whole / all

Example in main pic:

全部 - 전부 - All parts

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-17/

~~~~~~~~~~

(you can ignore this. Here’s your ignore-this permission-slip. Don’t drop it)

So… Hello. I usually don’t comment on these because they feel big enough already, but whatever. I’m clearly trying out different ways of visualizing things so I hope you don’t mind the inconsistencies. Feel free to tell me if there’s a style you prefer (and why it’s better for your learning?), but you’re not my boss so no promises. No promises to my boss either for that matter.

Anyway, I’m also making a couple pics here and there kind of Black Lives Matter-y and you can’t stop me, but it does mean that I don’t necessarily use the most recognizible words for the Hanja? (Like for 수 the most obvious one is obviously “math - 수학”) You’re just gonna have to live with that.

Also I really appreciate likes and reblogs? It’s pretty motivating, but I’m not your boss either so just do your thing.

(this is why I don’t comment things here. I ramble. Stay safe out there. Bye)

時

Meaning - Time

Korean syllable - 시

Korean name - 때 시

期

Meaning - Time, period

Korean syllable - 기

Korean name - 말날 기

間

Meaning - Space, Interval, Between

Korean syllable - 간

Korean name - 사이 간

(also used as a grammatical principle (amongst/between options/actions) and in words like 人問 (인간) meaning “human” which isn’t really related to time or space)

同

Meaning - Same

Korean syllable - 동

Korean name - 한가지 동

(동성애자 isn’t one of the examples in the lesson, but I couldn’t help myself)

(also for 共同體 (공동체 - community) I used some fanart from the TV show Community. I usually try not to use references/pop-culture, but I was bored, ok?)

百

Meaning - 100, everything, total

Korean syllable - 백

Korean name - 일백 백

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-16/

Hanja Lesson 16: 時, 期, 間, 同, 百

場

Meaning - Place / Location

Korean syllable - 장

Korean name - 마당 장

室

Meaning - Room

Korean syllable - 실

Korean name - 집 실

食

Meaning - Food

Korean syllable - 식

Korean name - 밥 식

地

Meaning - Land / Earth

Korean syllable - 지

Korean name - 땅 지

方

Meaning - Area / Region / Side

Korean syllable - 방

Korean name - 모 방

Source:https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-15/

Hanja Lesson 15: 場, 室, 食, 地, 方

公

Meaning - Public / Shared / Equal

Korean syllable - 공

Korean name - 공평할 공

Examples

公園 - 공원 - Public park

主人公 - 주인공 - Hero, Leading role in a story

公主 - 공주 - Princess

市

Meaning - City

Korean syllable - 시

Korean name - 저자 시

Examples

市民 - 시민 - Citizen

市內 - 시내 - Downtown

者市 - 도시 - City

區

Meaning - District / Division

Korean syllable - 구

Korean name - 지경 구

Examples

區民 - 구민 - Inhabitants of a district

區域 - 구역 - Area / District

龍山區 - 용산구 - Yongsan-gu / Yongsan district. One of the 25 districts in Seoul. (pictured)

洞

Meaning - Neighborhood

Korean syllable - 동

Korean name - 골 동

Examples

洞內 - 동내 - Inside a neighborhood

洞口 - 동구 - The entrance to a neighborhood

梨泰院洞 - 이태원동 - Itaewon-dong / Itaewon neighborhood. A neighborhood in Yongsan-gu. (pictured)

合

Meaning - Combine / Unite

Korean syllable - 합

Korean name - 합할 합

Examples

統合 - 통합 - Integration

團合 - 단합 - Unity, Solidarity

合意 - 합의 - Agreement

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-14/

Hanja Lesson 14: 公, 市, 區, 洞, 合

師

Meaning - Teacher (profession)

Korean syllable - 사

Korean name - 스승 사

Examples

看護師 - 간호사 - Nurrse

敎師 - 교사 - Teacher, professor

醫師 - 의사 - Doctor

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-13/

Hanja Lesson 13: 學, 生, 校, 先, 師

先

Meaning - First

Korean syllable - 선

Korean name - 먼저 선

Examples

先生님 - 선생님 - Teacher (님 doesn’t have Hanja)

先着順 - 선착순 - First come first served / order of arrival

優先 - 우선 - First, above all, preference, special treatment

Source:https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-13/

Hanja Lesson 13: 學, 生, 校, 先, 師

校

Meaning - School

Korean syllable - 교

Korean name - 학교 교

Examples

女學校 - 여학교 - Girls school

校內 - 교내 - Inside a school

母校 - 모교 - One’s old school / Alma mater

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-13/

Hanja Lesson 13: 學, 生, 校, 先, 師

生

Meaning - Life / Birth

Korean syllable - 생

Korean name - 날 생

Examples

生日 - 생일 - Birthday

一生 - 일생 - One’s entire life

新入生 - 신입생 - Freshman

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-13/

Hanja Lesson 13: 學, 生, 校, 先, 師

學

Meaning - Learn / School

Korean syllable - 학

Korean name - 배울 학

Examples

學生 - 학생 - Student

學校 - 학교 - School

入學 - 입학 - To enter a school, school admission

Source :https://www.howtostudykorean.com/hanja-unit-1-lessons-1-20/hanja-lesson-13/

Hanja Lesson 13: 學, 生, 校, 先, 師

지진 - Earthquake

진지 - Rice/meal (polite)

장터 - A traditional market

하계 올림픽 - Summer Olympics (하계 - The summer season)

동계 올림픽 - Winter Olympics (동계 - The winter season)

지지난주 - The week before last (last last week)

다다음주 - The week after next (next next week) (I didn’t really know how to visualize these, sorry)

장화 - Boots, rain boots

눈 오는 날 - Snow day, a day where it snows (눈 - Snow, 오다 - To come, ~는 - Makes 오다 a noun, 날 - Day)

울 - Wool

중간고사 - Midterm exam (중간 - Middle, 고사 - An examination, test)

가면 - A mask (disguise)

매다 - To tie, knot

구토 - Vomiting

허리띠 - A belt, waistband

빼다 - To remove

남색 - Navy blue, dark blue (also sodomy apparently?)

치통 - Toothache

복통 - Stomachache

조율하다 - To tune (a piano)